Complete Solutions and Summary of Breathing and Exchange of Gases – NCERT Class 11, Biology, Chapter 14 – Summary, Questions, Answers, Extra Questions

Summary of respiratory organs, breathing mechanism, gas exchange, transport, control, and disorders with key NCERT questions.

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Categories: NCERT, Class XI, Biology, Summary, Respiration, Human Physiology, Breathing, Gas Exchange, Chapter 14

Tags: Breathing, Gas Exchange, Respiratory Organs, Mechanism of Breathing, Oxygen Transport, Carbon Dioxide Transport, Regulation, Disorders, Spirometry, NCERT, Class 11, Biology, Chapter 14, Answers, Extra Questions

Breathing and Exchange of Gases Class 11 NCERT Chapter 14 - Ultimate Study Guide, Notes, Questions, Quiz 2025

Full Chapter Summary & Detailed Notes - Breathing and Exchange of Gases Class 11 NCERT

Overview & Key Concepts

Chapter Goal: Understand the respiratory system, mechanisms of breathing, gas exchange, transport, regulation, and disorders. Exam Focus: Human respiratory anatomy, partial pressures, hemoglobin binding, volumes/capacities. 2025 Updates: Emphasis on pollution-related disorders, climate impact on respiration. Fun Fact: Alveoli surface area equals a tennis court (~70 m²). Core Idea: Respiration ensures O₂ supply for energy and CO₂ removal. Real-World: Asthma from urban pollution, emphysema from smoking.
Wider Scope: Links to circulation (Ch 15), cellular respiration (Ch 12), neural control (Ch 18).

14.1 Respiratory Organs

Respiration is the exchange of O₂ from atmosphere with CO₂ from cells, essential for energy via catabolism of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids. O₂ utilization indirectly breaks down nutrients; CO₂, a harmful byproduct, must be expelled. Place hands on chest to feel breathing movement.

Variations Across Animals: Depends on habitat/organization. Lower invertebrates (sponges, coelenterates, flatworms) use simple diffusion over body surface. Earthworms: Moist cuticle. Insects: Tracheal tubes for air transport. Aquatic arthropods/molluscs: Gills (branchial respiration). Terrestrial: Lungs (pulmonary). Vertebrates: Fishes (gills), amphibians/reptiles/birds/mammals (lungs); frogs also cutaneous via moist skin.
Human Respiratory System (Detailed Anatomy): Paired external nostrils above upper lip lead to nasal chamber via nasal passage. Nasal chamber opens to pharynx (common food-air passage). Pharynx to larynx (sound box, cartilaginous) to trachea (straight tube to mid-thoracic cavity, divides at 5th thoracic vertebra into right/left primary bronchi). Bronchi branch into secondary/tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles. Supported by incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings. Terminal bronchioles form thin, irregular-walled, vascularized alveoli (bag-like). Branching network = lungs (two, covered by double-layered pleura with pleural fluid reducing friction). Outer pleura contacts thoracic lining; inner with lung surface.
Conducting vs Respiratory Parts: External nostrils to terminal bronchioles = conducting (transports air, filters foreign particles, humidifies, warms to body temp). Alveoli/ducts = respiratory/exchange part (diffusion site). Thoracic chamber (air-tight): Vertebral column (dorsal), sternum (ventral), ribs (lateral), dome-shaped diaphragm (inferior). Volume changes in thorax reflect in lungs, essential for breathing.
Steps of Respiration: (i) Pulmonary ventilation (breathing: in O₂, out CO₂). (ii) Diffusion O₂/CO₂ across alveolar membrane. (iii) Blood transport of gases. (iv) Diffusion between blood/tissues. (v) Cellular respiration (O₂ use, CO₂ release – Ch 12).

Figure 14.1: Diagrammatic view of human respiratory system (left lung sectional).

14.2 Mechanism of Breathing

Two stages: Inspiration (air in) and expiration (air out) via pressure gradient between lungs/atmosphere. Inspiration: Intra-pulmonary pressure < atmospheric (negative). Expiration: Intra-pulmonary > atmospheric.

Muscles Involved: Diaphragm contracts (antero-posterior axis increase), external intercostals lift ribs/sternum (dorso-ventral increase). Overall thoracic volume up → pulmonary volume up → pressure down → air forced in. Relaxation: Diaphragm/intercostals return to normal, volume down → pressure up → air expelled. Additional abdominal muscles for forced breathing. Average: 12-16 breaths/min. Measured by spirometer for clinical assessment.
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities (Detailed):
- Tidal Volume (TV): Normal breath air (~500 mL); 6000-8000 mL/min.
- Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Forced inspiration beyond TV (2500-3000 mL).
- Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Forced expiration beyond TV (1000-1100 mL).
- Residual Volume (RV): Air left after forced expiration (1100-1200 mL).
Capacities: Inspiratory Capacity (IC = TV + IRV). Expiratory Capacity (EC = TV + ERV). Functional Residual Capacity (FRC = ERV + RV). Vital Capacity (VC = ERV + TV + IRV). Total Lung Capacity (TLC = VC + RV).

Figures 14.2a/b: Inspiration/expiration mechanisms.

14.3 Exchange of Gases

Primary sites: Alveoli (lungs) and tissues. Simple diffusion via pressure/concentration gradient. Factors: Solubility (CO₂ 20-25x > O₂), membrane thickness (<1 mm).

Partial Pressures: pO₂ (individual gas contribution). Table 14.1: Atmosphere (O₂ 159 mmHg, CO₂ 0.3); Alveoli (104, 40); Deoxygenated blood (40, 45); Oxygenated blood (95, 40); Tissues (40, 45). Gradients: O₂ alveoli → blood → tissues; CO₂ tissues → blood → alveoli.
Diffusion Membrane: Three layers – alveolar squamous epithelium, capillary endothelium, basement substance. Thin for efficient diffusion. Figure 14.3: Gas exchange diagram. Figure 14.4: Alveolus-capillary section.

14.4 Transport of Gases

Blood medium: 97% O₂ by RBCs, 3% dissolved plasma. CO₂: 20-25% RBCs, 70% bicarbonate, 7% dissolved plasma.

14.4.1 Transport of Oxygen: Hemoglobin (Fe-pigment in RBCs) binds reversibly to oxyhemoglobin (4 O₂ max/molecule). Binding: pO₂ primary; affected by pCO₂, H⁺, temperature. Sigmoid oxygen dissociation curve (Fig 14.5): High pO₂/low pCO₂/low H⁺/low temp in alveoli → binding; opposite in tissues → dissociation. 100 mL oxygenated blood delivers ~5 mL O₂.
14.4.2 Transport of Carbon Dioxide: 20-25% carbaminohemoglobin (pCO₂-related; low pO₂ aids binding in tissues, high pO₂ aids release in alveoli). 70% bicarbonate via carbonic anhydrase: CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (RBCs/plasma). High pCO₂ in tissues → bicarbonate formation; low in alveoli → reverse. 100 mL deoxygenated blood delivers ~4 mL CO₂.

14.5 Regulation of Respiration

Neural control maintains rhythm per tissue demands. Respiratory rhythm center (medulla) primary; pneumotaxic center (pons) moderates inspiration duration/rate. Chemosensitive area (medulla) sensitive to CO₂/H⁺ → signals rhythm center. Aortic/carotid receptors detect CO₂/H⁺ changes → signals. O₂ role minor.

14.6 Disorders of Respiratory System

Asthma: Wheezing from bronchi/bronchioles inflammation/narrowing.
Emphysema: Chronic; alveolar walls damaged → reduced surface. Major cause: Smoking.
Occupational: Dust in grinding/stone-breaking → inflammation/fibrosis/lung damage. Use masks.

Summary

Cells use O₂ for metabolism, produce CO₂. Evolved mechanisms for transport/removal. Human system: Lungs/air passages. Steps: Ventilation, diffusion, transport, tissue exchange, cellular respiration. Volumes/capacities via spirometer. Diffusion via gradients/solubility/thinness. O₂ as oxyhemoglobin; CO₂ as bicarbonate/carbamino. Rhythm: Medulla/pneumotaxic/chemosensitive centers.

Why This Guide Stands Out

Complete coverage: All subtopics, diagrams explained, Q&A (NCERT + extras), quiz. Exam-ready for 2025. Free & ad-free.

Key Themes & Tips

Respiration Essentials: O₂ in, CO₂ out for energy.
Human Focus: Anatomy, volumes, transport curves.
Tip: Memorize partial pressures table; draw dissociation curve.

Exam Case Studies

Questions on volumes (e.g., VC calculation), disorders (smoking effects).

Project & Group Ideas

Measure TV via balloon; discuss pollution impact on lungs.

Key Definitions & Terms - Complete Glossary

All terms from chapter; detailed explanations, examples, clinical relevance. Organized by subtopic for easy reference. (Extensive content for depth.)

Respiration

Exchange of O₂/CO₂; O₂ for catabolism (glucose etc.), CO₂ removal. Types: External (breathing), internal (tissue). Example: Human pulmonary. Importance: Energy production; disorders disrupt.

Alveoli

Thin-walled sacs at bronchioles end; gas exchange site. ~300 million/lung, 70 m² area. Vascularized for diffusion. Example: O₂ enters blood here.

Trachea

Straight tube from larynx to bronchi; C-rings prevent collapse. Divides at T5 vertebra. Example: Air pathway post-pharynx.

Bronchi/Bronchioles

Primary/secondary/tertiary bronchi branch to bronchioles (no cartilage, smooth muscle). Terminal to alveoli. Example: Conducting part.

Pleura

Double membrane around lungs; fluid reduces friction. Outer (parietal) on thoracic wall; inner (visceral) on lung. Example: Pleurisy inflammation causes pain.

Diaphragm

Dome-shaped muscle; contracts for inspiration (flattens, volume up). Relaxation for expiration. Example: Primary breathing muscle.

Inspiration/Expiration

In: Negative pressure pulls air (diaphragm/external intercostals). Out: Positive pressure pushes (relaxation). Example: Forced via abdominals.

Tidal Volume (TV)

~500 mL normal breath. Total/min: 6-8 L. Clinical: Spirometer measures.

Vital Capacity (VC)

Max breath after forced expiration (ERV+TV+IRV, ~4600 mL). Indicates lung health.

Partial Pressure (pO₂/pCO₂)

Gas contribution in mixture (mmHg). Alveoli: pO₂ 104, pCO₂ 40. Drives diffusion.

Oxyhemoglobin

Hb + O₂ reversible. Sigmoid curve shows binding. Factors: pCO₂, H⁺, temp shift.

Carbaminohemoglobin

Hb + CO₂ (20-25%). Tissues: Binds (high pCO₂); alveoli: Releases (low pCO₂).

Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻)

70% CO₂ transport. Carbonic anhydrase: CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻. Chloride shift balances.

Respiratory Rhythm Center

Medulla: Sets basic rhythm. Pneumotaxic (pons): Limits inspiration. Chemosensitive: CO₂/H⁺ sensitive.

Asthma

Bronchi inflammation → wheezing. Triggers: Allergens, pollution. Treatment: Inhalers.

Emphysema

Alveolar damage → reduced surface. Smoking cause; chronic, irreversible.

Occupational Disorders

Dust-induced fibrosis (e.g., silicosis). Prevention: Masks in industries.

Tip: Link terms to figures (e.g., 14.1 anatomy); use for flashcards. Clinical: Low VC in emphysema.

Extended Notes: Partial pressures table crucial – memorize gradients for MCQs. Hemoglobin curve: Bohr effect (high CO₂ shifts right, aids unloading). Enzyme role: Carbonic anhydrase speeds 10,000x. Volumes: TLC ~6L male; females less. Disorders: Link to lifestyle (smoking, pollution).

60+ Questions & Answers - NCERT Based (Class 11)

Structured as Part A (1 mark, short ~1 line), Part B (4 marks, ~4-6 lines), Part C (8 marks, detailed ~8-10 lines/paragraphs). 20 per part, based on chapter, answers matching scheme.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions (Short Answers)

1. What is respiration?

1 Mark Answer: Exchange of O₂ from atmosphere with CO₂ from cells.

2. Site of gas exchange in humans?

1 Mark Answer: Alveoli.

3. Respiratory organ in fishes?

1 Mark Answer: Gills.

4. Common passage for food/air?

1 Mark Answer: Pharynx.

5. Sound box?

1 Mark Answer: Larynx.

6. Prevents food entry to larynx?

1 Mark Answer: Epiglottis.

7. Trachea divides at?

1 Mark Answer: 5th thoracic vertebra.

8. Support for bronchi?

1 Mark Answer: Incomplete cartilaginous rings.

9. Lung covering?

1 Mark Answer: Pleura.

10. Primary breathing muscle?

1 Mark Answer: Diaphragm.

11. Normal breaths/min?

1 Mark Answer: 12-16.

12. Tidal Volume value?

1 Mark Answer: 500 mL.

13. Atmospheric pO₂?

1 Mark Answer: 159 mmHg.

14. Alveolar pCO₂?

1 Mark Answer: 40 mmHg.

15. O₂ transport % by RBCs?

1 Mark Answer: 97%.

16. Hb binds max O₂ molecules?

1 Mark Answer: 4.

17. CO₂ transport as bicarbonate %?

1 Mark Answer: 70%.

18. Enzyme for CO₂ transport?

1 Mark Answer: Carbonic anhydrase.

19. Respiratory center location?

1 Mark Answer: Medulla.

20. Major cause of emphysema?

1 Mark Answer: Cigarette smoking.

Part B: 4 Marks Questions (Medium Answers ~4-6 Lines)

1. Differentiate conducting and respiratory parts.

4 Marks Answer: Conducting: Nostrils to terminal bronchioles – transports, filters, humidifies air. Respiratory: Alveoli/ducts – actual diffusion site. Conducting clears foreign particles; respiratory thin for gas exchange. Example: Trachea conducting, alveoli respiratory.

2. Explain inspiration mechanism.

4 Marks Answer: Diaphragm contracts (volume up antero-posterior), external intercostals lift ribs/sternum (dorso-ventral). Thoracic/pulmonary volume increases, pressure decreases below atmospheric, air enters. Relaxation reverses for expiration.

3. Define TV, IRV, ERV.

4 Marks Answer: TV: Normal breath (500 mL). IRV: Extra forced inspiration (2500-3000 mL). ERV: Extra forced expiration (1000-1100 mL). Used in capacities like IC=TV+IRV.

4. What is partial pressure? Give example.

4 Marks Answer: Pressure by individual gas in mixture (mmHg). Example: Atmospheric pO₂ 159, pCO₂ 0.3; drives diffusion gradients.

5. Factors affecting diffusion rate.

4 Marks Answer: Pressure gradient, solubility (CO₂ > O₂), membrane thickness (<1 mm). Favorable in body for O₂ alveoli→tissues, CO₂ reverse.

6. Oxygen dissociation curve significance.

4 Marks Answer: Sigmoid plot % saturation vs pO₂; shows factors (pCO₂, H⁺, temp) effect. Alveoli: Binding; tissues: Unloading (Bohr shift).

7. How is CO₂ transported as bicarbonate?

4 Marks Answer: Carbonic anhydrase: CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻. Tissues: Forms; alveoli: Reverse. 70% total.

8. Role of pneumotaxic center.

4 Marks Answer: In pons; moderates medulla rhythm by shortening inspiration, adjusts rate.

9. Chemosensitive area function.

4 Marks Answer: Adjacent medulla; sensitive CO₂/H⁺, signals rhythm center for adjustments to eliminate excess.

10. Asthma definition and cause.

4 Marks Answer: Difficulty breathing, wheezing from bronchi inflammation. Triggers: Allergens, pollution.

11. Steps of respiration.

4 Marks Answer: Ventilation, alveolar diffusion, blood transport, tissue diffusion, cellular use/CO₂ release.

12. Vital Capacity components.

4 Marks Answer: ERV + TV + IRV; max after forced expiration.

13. Bohr effect.

4 Marks Answer: High pCO₂/H⁺/temp shifts curve right, aids O₂ unloading in tissues.

14. Chloride shift.

4 Marks Answer: HCO₃⁻ out RBCs, Cl⁻ in for charge balance.

15. FRC definition.

4 Marks Answer: ERV + RV; air after normal expiration.

16. Gills function.

4 Marks Answer: Vascularized for aquatic O₂/CO₂ exchange.

17. Pleural fluid role.

4 Marks Answer: Reduces lung surface friction.

18. TLC value approx.

4 Marks Answer: VC + RV (~5800 mL).

19. Aortic receptors detect?

4 Marks Answer: CO₂/H⁺ changes.

20. Occupational disorder example.

4 Marks Answer: Fibrosis from dust; use masks.

Part C: 8 Marks Questions (Detailed Answers ~8-10 Lines)

1. Describe human respiratory system anatomy.

8 Marks Answer: Nostrils → nasal chamber (filters/humidifies) → pharynx (common) → larynx (sound, epiglottis guards) → trachea (C-rings, to T5) → primary bronchi → secondary/tertiary → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → alveoli (exchange). Lungs: Pleura-covered, thoracic chamber (vertebrae/sternum/ribs/diaphragm). Conducting: To bronchioles; respiratory: Alveoli. Figure 14.1 shows sectional left lung. Clinical: Blockages cause issues like asphyxia.

2. Explain breathing mechanism with diagrams.

8 Marks Answer: Pressure gradient drives: Inspiration – diaphragm contracts (flattens), intercostals lift ribs/sternum → volume up → pressure down → air in (Fig 14.2a). Expiration – relaxation → volume down → pressure up → air out (Fig 14.2b). Forced: Abdominals. Average 12-16/min. Spirometer assesses. Relates to thoracic airtightness.

3. Discuss respiratory volumes/capacities with values.

8 Marks Answer: Volumes: TV 500 mL, IRV 2500-3000, ERV 1000-1100, RV 1100-1200. Capacities: IC=TV+IRV, EC=TV+ERV, FRC=ERV+RV, VC=ERV+TV+IRV (~4600), TLC=VC+RV (~5800). Clinical diagnosis: Low VC in restrictive diseases. Table for reference.

4. Explain gas exchange with partial pressures.

8 Marks Answer: Diffusion via gradient/solubility/thin membrane. Table 14.1: O₂ gradient alveoli (104)→blood(40)→tissues(40); CO₂ reverse (45→40→40). CO₂ solubility 20-25x O₂ aids. Membrane: Epithelium+endothelium+basement (<1 mm). Fig 14.3/14.4 illustrate.

5. Detail O₂ transport and dissociation curve.

8 Marks Answer: 97% oxyhemoglobin (4 O₂/Hb), 3% dissolved. Curve sigmoid (Fig 14.5); pO₂ main, pCO₂/H⁺/temp interfere. Alveoli favorable binding; tissues dissociation (5 mL/100 mL blood). Bohr: Acidic shifts right.

6. Describe CO₂ transport mechanisms.

8 Marks Answer: 20-25% carbamino (tissues bind high pCO₂, alveoli release); 70% bicarbonate (anhydrase reaction, chloride shift); 7% dissolved. 4 mL/100 mL blood. Fig 14.3 shows path.

7. How is respiration regulated?

8 Marks Answer: Neural: Medulla rhythm center sets pace; pons pneumotaxic shortens inspiration. Chemosensitive (medulla) to CO₂/H⁺ activates adjustments. Aortic/carotid receptors signal changes. O₂ minor role. Maintains per demands.

8. Discuss respiratory disorders.

8 Marks Answer: Asthma: Inflammation/wheezing. Emphysema: Alveolar damage/reduced surface (smoking). Occupational: Dust fibrosis (masks prevent). Impacts: Reduced efficiency, hypoxia.

9. Compare animal respiratory organs.

8 Marks Answer: Invertebrates: Diffusion/skin/cuticle/trachea/gills. Vertebrates: Gills (fish), lungs (terrestrial), cutaneous (frogs). Humans: Lungs/alveoli specialized.

10. Significance of respiratory capacities.

8 Marks Answer: Clinical: VC/TLC assess function; low in diseases. Daily: TV for normal, reserves for activity.

11. Role of factors in O₂ binding.

8 Marks Answer: pO₂ direct; high pCO₂/acidic/high temp dissociate (tissues). Curve shows cooperative binding.

12. Enzyme in CO₂ transport.

8 Marks Answer: Anhydrase in RBCs/plasma; reversible reaction traps CO₂ as HCO₃⁻ for transport.

13. Impact of smoking on lungs.

8 Marks Answer: Emphysema: Destroys alveoli; reduced exchange, breathlessness.

14. Diffusion membrane structure.

8 Marks Answer: Three layers thin for efficiency; Fig 14.4 details.

15. Steps in external respiration.

8 Marks Answer: Ventilation, diffusion at alveoli, transport via blood.

16. Why thin membrane important?

8 Marks Answer: Faster diffusion; body optimized for O₂/CO₂.

17. Receptors in regulation.

8 Marks Answer: Aortic/carotid for CO₂/H⁺; signal medulla.

18. Calculate minute ventilation.

8 Marks Answer: TV × breaths/min = 500 × 12-16 = 6-8 L.

19. Hypoxia discussion.

8 Marks Answer: Low O₂; causes: Altitude, anemia. Symptoms: Fatigue; treatment: Oxygen.

20. Insect gas exchange site.

8 Marks Answer: Tracheae; direct to cells, no blood.

Practice Tip: Diagrams for long answers; tables for volumes.

Key Concepts

Core ideas explained in detail with examples, clinical ties. (Substantial content.)

Respiratory System Anatomy

Dual function: Conducting (air prep) + respiratory (exchange). Nostrils-pharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-alveoli. Pleura protects. Thoracic setup for volume change. Example: Epiglottis prevents aspiration. Clinical: Tracheostomy bypasses upper issues.

Breathing Mechanics

Pressure-based: Negative for in, positive for out. Muscles: Diaphragm (70% work), intercostals. Volumes: TV baseline, reserves for stress. Example: Exercise increases rate/depth. Clinical: Spirometry diagnoses COPD.

Gas Exchange Principles

Diffusion Fick's law: Gradient × solubility / thickness. Partial pressures key. CO₂ easier due solubility. Example: Hyperventilation lowers pCO₂. Clinical: Emphysema thickens effective membrane.

O₂ Transport & Curve

Hb cooperative binding; sigmoid for efficiency. Factors modulate unloading. Example: Tissues acidic → more O₂ release. Clinical: Anemia low Hb → fatigue.

CO₂ Transport

Diverse: Carbamino quick, bicarbonate bulk. Anhydrase essential. Example: Exercise high CO₂ → faster breathing. Clinical: Acidosis from poor transport.

Regulation Neural Control

Medulla sets, pons fine-tunes, chemoreceptors feedback. CO₂ main driver. Example: Exercise ↑CO₂ → ↑rate. Clinical: Brain injury disrupts rhythm.

Extended: Integration: Links to heart (O₂ delivery), nerves (control). Evolutionary: From gills to lungs. Modern: Ventilators mimic. Tips: Curve shifts for Bohr/Haldane. Volumes add up: Practice calculations.

Real-Life: Altitude training shifts curve left for better binding. Pollution: Increases disorders 20-30% urban.

Interactive Quiz - Master Breathing and Exchange of Gases

20 MCQs; aim 85%+. Covers full chapter.

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics - Exam-Ready

14.1 Respiratory Organs

Animals: Diffusion/gills/lungs/cutaneous.

Human: Nostrils-pharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-alveoli. Pleura fluid.

Conducting: Filter; respiratory: Exchange.

14.2 Mechanism

In: Diaphragm down, intercostals up; pressure -ve.

Out: Relax; +ve.

TV 500, IRV 3000, ERV 1100, RV 1200.

IC=TV+IRV, VC=ERV+TV+IRV, TLC=VC+RV.

14.3 Exchange

Gradient: O₂ 104→40, CO₂ 40→45.

Membrane thin; CO₂ soluble.

14.4 Transport O₂

97% Hb; 4 O₂/Hb; sigmoid curve.

Bohr: Right shift unload.

14.4 CO₂

70% HCO₃⁻ (anhydrase); 25% carbamino.

14.5 Regulation

Medulla rhythm; pons limit; chemosensitive CO₂.

14.6 Disorders

Asthma: Wheeze. Emphysema: Damage (smoke). Occupational: Dust fibrosis.

Summary

Steps: Ventilation-diffusion-transport-tissue-cellular.

Mnemonics: Volumes: "Tired (TV) I Reserve (IRV) Every (ERV) Room (RV)". Hierarchy: "Please (Pleura) Come (Conducting) Rapidly (Respiratory)". Curve: "Sigmoid Snake Bites at Tissues (right shift)".

Tip: Tables: Pressures/volumes. Draw: Anatomy/curve.

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