Complete Summary and Solutions for Supplementary Chemistry Material – NCERT Class XII Chemistry Part I Supplementary Resources – Additional Examples, Problems, and Explanations

Detailed supplementary material for NCERT Class XII Chemistry Part I, providing additional solved examples, practice questions, explanations, and resources aligned with the main textbook chapters, designed to reinforce and enhance understanding of core chemistry concepts for class XII students.

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Chemistry Appendices - Ultimate Study Guide 2025

Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass

Overview & Key Concepts

Content: Alphabetical table of elements with symbols, atomic numbers, and molar masses (g/mol). Values in parentheses indicate the molar mass of the isotope with the longest known half-life for unstable elements.
Importance: Essential for stoichiometry, calculating molecular weights, and understanding periodic trends. Use in mole calculations, empirical formulas, and reaction balancing.
Applications: Lab weighing, formula mass determination. Real-world: Material science, pharmaceuticals. Debates: Periodic updates to atomic masses by IUPAC.

Detailed Table

Element	Symbol	Atomic Number	Molar mass (g mol⁻¹)
Actinium	Ac	89	227.03
Aluminium	Al	13	26.98
Americium	Am	95	(243)
Antimony	Sb	51	121.75
Argon	Ar	18	39.95
Arsenic	As	33	74.92
Astatine	At	85	210
Barium	Ba	56	137.34
Berkelium	Bk	97	(247)
Beryllium	Be	4	9.01
Bismuth	Bi	83	208.98
Bohrium	Bh	107	(264)
Boron	B	5	10.81
Bromine	Br	35	79.91
Cadmium	Cd	48	112.40
Caesium	Cs	55	132.91
Calcium	Ca	20	40.08
Californium	Cf	98	251.08
Carbon	C	6	12.01
Cerium	Ce	58	140.12
Chlorine	Cl	17	35.45
Chromium	Cr	24	52.00
Cobalt	Co	27	58.93
Copper	Cu	29	63.54
Curium	Cm	96	247.07
Dubnium	Db	105	(263)
Dysprosium	Dy	66	162.50
Einsteinium	Es	99	(252)
Erbium	Er	68	167.26
Europium	Eu	63	151.96
Fermium	Fm	100	(257.10)
Fluorine	F	9	19.00
Francium	Fr	87	(223)
Gadolinium	Gd	64	157.25
Gallium	Ga	31	69.72
Germanium	Ge	32	72.61
Gold	Au	79	196.97
Hafnium	Hf	72	178.49
Hassium	Hs	108	(269)
Helium	He	2	4.00
Holmium	Ho	67	164.93
Hydrogen	H	1	1.0079
Indium	In	49	114.82
Iodine	I	53	126.90
Iridium	Ir	77	192.2
Iron	Fe	26	55.85
Krypton	Kr	36	83.80
Lanthanum	La	57	138.91
Lawrencium	Lr	103	(262.1)
Lead	Pb	82	207.19
Lithium	Li	3	6.94
Lutetium	Lu	71	174.96
Magnesium	Mg	12	24.31
Manganese	Mn	25	54.94
Meitnerium	Mt	109	(268)
Mendelevium	Md	101	258.10
Mercury	Hg	80	200.59
Molybdenum	Mo	42	95.94
Neodymium	Nd	60	144.24
Neon	Ne	10	20.18
Neptunium	Np	93	(237.05)
Nickel	Ni	28	58.71
Niobium	Nb	41	92.91
Nitrogen	N	7	14.0067
Nobelium	No	102	(259)
Osmium	Os	76	190.2
Oxygen	O	8	16.00
Palladium	Pd	46	106.4
Phosphorus	P	15	30.97
Platinum	Pt	78	195.09
Plutonium	Pu	94	(244)
Polonium	Po	84	210
Potassium	K	19	39.10
Praseodymium	Pr	59	140.91
Promethium	Pm	61	(145)
Protactinium	Pa	91	231.04
Radium	Ra	88	(226)
Radon	Rn	86	(222)
Rhenium	Re	75	186.2
Rhodium	Rh	45	102.91
Rubidium	Rb	37	85.47
Ruthenium	Ru	44	101.07
Rutherfordium	Rf	104	(261)
Samarium	Sm	62	150.35
Scandium	Sc	21	44.96
Seaborgium	Sg	106	(266)
Selenium	Se	34	78.96
Silicon	Si	14	28.08
Silver	Ag	47	107.87
Sodium	Na	11	22.99
Strontium	Sr	38	87.62
Sulphur	S	16	32.06
Tantalum	Ta	73	180.95
Technetium	Tc	43	(98.91)
Tellurium	Te	52	127.60
Terbium	Tb	65	158.92
Thallium	Tl	81	204.37
Thorium	Th	90	232.04
Thulium	Tm	69	168.93
Tin	Sn	50	118.69
Titanium	Ti	22	47.88
Tungsten	W	74	183.85
Ununbium	Uub	112	(277)
Ununnilium	Uun	110	(269)
Unununium	Uuu	111	(272)
Uranium	U	92	238.03
Vanadium	V	23	50.94
Xenon	Xe	54	131.30
Ytterbium	Yb	70	173.04
Yttrium	Y	39	88.91
Zinc	Zn	30	65.37
Zirconium	Zr	40	91.22

Conceptual Diagram: Alphabetical Element List

Not in periodic order; quick reference for atomic data. Use for calculations like moles = mass / molar mass.

Key Definitions & Terms

Atomic Number

Number of protons; defines element. Ex: C 6. Relevance: Element identity. Detailed: Defines position in periodic table.

Molar Mass

Mass 1 mol (g/mol). Ex: C 12.01. Relevance: Stoichiometry. Detailed: Average isotopes, parentheses longest half-life.

Half-Life

Time half decay. Ex: (243) Am. Relevance: Unstable isotopes. Detailed: Molar mass given for longest.

Atomic Mass Unit

1.6606×10^-24 g. Relevance: Atoms. Detailed: 1/12 C-12.

Tip: Group by appendix; examples for recall. Depth: Debates (e.g., cal vs J). Errors: Confuse characteristic sign. Interlinks: To main chapters (e.g., potentials to electrochem). Advanced: Log uses in pH. Real-Life: Conversions in cooking. Graphs: None major. Coherent: Evidence → Interpretation. For easy learning: Flashcard per term with value.

60+ Questions & Answers - Based on Appendix I

10 1 mark, 10 4 marks, 10 6 marks. Answers point-wise in black text.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions (10 Qs - Short)

1. Atomic number of Carbon?

1 Mark Answer:

2. Molar mass Hydrogen?

1 Mark Answer:

1.0079 g/mol.

3. Symbol Gold?

1 Mark Answer:

Au.

4. Atomic number Zinc?

1 Mark Answer:

30.

5. Molar mass Oxygen?

1 Mark Answer:

16.00 g/mol.

6. What does (243) mean for Americium?

1 Mark Answer:

Molar mass of isotope with longest half-life.

7. Atomic number Iron?

1 Mark Answer:

26.

8. Symbol for Sodium?

1 Mark Answer:

Na.

9. Molar mass Sodium?

1 Mark Answer:

22.99 g/mol.

10. Atomic number Helium?

1 Mark Answer:

Part B: 4 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Medium, Exactly 5 Lines Each)

1. Explain parentheses in molar mass.

4 Marks Answer:

Indicates molar mass of isotope with longest half-life.
For unstable elements not having stable isotopes.
Ex: Americium (243).
Not average atomic mass.
Used in nuclear chemistry calculations.

2. How to calculate molecular mass using table.

4 Marks Answer:

Lookup atomic masses of atoms in molecule.
Multiply by number of atoms each.
Sum all.
Ex: H2O = 2*1.0079 + 16.00 = 18.0158.
Use for stoichiometry.

Part C: 6 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Long, Exactly 8 Lines Each)

1. Discuss importance of molar mass in Chemistry.

6 Marks Answer:

Molar mass is mass of 1 mol substance in g/mol.
Used to convert mass to moles.
Essential for stoichiometry ratios.
Ex: In reactions, balance using moles.
Average of isotopes for stable.
Parentheses for unstable isotopes.
Links to Avogadro number.
Applications in lab, industry.

Key Formulas & Tables

Key Formula: Moles = mass / molar mass

Element	Symbol	Atomic Number	Molar mass (g mol⁻¹)

Derivations & Calculations

Molar Mass of Compound

Step 1: Identify formula.
Step 2: Lookup atomic masses.
Step 3: Multiply by coefficients.
Step 4: Sum.
Ex: NaCl = 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 g/mol.

Solved Examples & Problems

Example: Molar mass of CO2

12.01 + 2*16.00 = 44.01 g/mol.

Problem: Moles in 88 g CO2

88 / 44.01 ≈ 2 moles.

Activities & Applications

Activity: Calculate Molar Mass

Step 1: Choose compound.
Step 2: Use table.
Step 3: Sum.
Observation: Accurate for calculations.
Precaution: Use correct values.

Key Concepts

Atomic Number

Steps: Defines element. Ex: Trends. Pitfall: Confuse with mass number. Interlink: Periodic table.

Molar Mass

Steps: Average or isotope. Ex: Calculations. Pitfall: Forget parentheses. Interlink: Stoich.

Interactive Quiz (10 Q)

Interactive Quiz - Elements

10 MCQs; test your knowledge.

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics

Alphabetical list.
Mnemonic: For common elements - He Li Be B C N O F Ne (Helicopters Lift Beautiful Balloons Carrying New Oxygen For New Explorers).

Key Terms & Formulas

Term	Description	Example	Usage
Atomic Number	Protons	C 6	Identity
Molar Mass	g/mol	C 12.01	Moles

Key Processes & Tables

Process: Finding Element Data

Step 1: Search name alphabetically.
Step 2: Read symbol, atomic no, molar mass.
Step 3: Note if parentheses for isotope.

Some Useful Conversion Factors

Overview & Key Concepts

Content: Common units for mass, weight, volume, energy, length, force, pressure, temperature. Notes on force, calorie, electron volt.
Importance: Standardize measurements; SI vs common. Essential for lab, calculations.
Applications: Unit conversion in problems. Real-world: Science, engineering.

Detailed List

Category	Conversion
Mass and Weight	1 pound = 453.59 grams
Mass and Weight	1 pound = 0.45359 kilogram
Mass and Weight	1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.205 pounds
Mass and Weight	1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams = 1000 milligrams
Mass and Weight	1 gram = 6.022 × 10^23 atomic mass units or u
Mass and Weight	1 atomic mass unit = 1.6606 × 10–24 gram
Mass and Weight	1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms = 2205 pounds
Volume	1 quart = 0.9463 litre
Volume	1 litre = 1.056 quarts
Volume	1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic centimetres = 0.001 cubic metre
Volume	1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0.001 litre = 1.056 × 10-3 quart
Volume	1 cubic foot = 28.316 litres = 29.902 quarts = 7.475 gallons
Energy	1 joule = 1 × 10^7 ergs
Energy	1 thermochemical calorie = 4.184 joules = 4.184 × 10^7 ergs = 4.129 × 10–2 litre-atmospheres = 2.612 × 10^19 electron volts
Energy	1 ergs = 1 × 10–7 joule = 2.3901 × 10–8 calorie
Energy	1 electron volt = 1.6022 × 10–19 joule = 1.6022 × 10–12 erg = 96.487 kJ/mol
Energy	1 litre-atmosphere = 24.217 calories = 101.32 joules = 1.0132 ×10^9 ergs
Energy	1 British thermal unit = 1055.06 joules = 1.05506 ×10^10 ergs = 252.2 calories
Length	1 inch = 2.54 centimetres (exactly)
Length	1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.609 kilometres
Length	1 yard = 36 inches = 0.9144 metre
Length	1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39.37 inches = 3.281 feet = 1.094 yards
Length	1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards = 0.6215 mile
Length	1 Angstrom = 1.0 × 10–8 centimetre = 0.10 nanometre = 1.0 × 10–10 metre = 3.937 × 10–9 inch
Force and Pressure	1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury = 1.013 × 10^5 pascals = 14.70 pounds per square inch
Force and Pressure	1 bar = 10^5 pascals
Force and Pressure	1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury
Force and Pressure	1 pascal = 1 kg/ms^2 = 1 N/m^2
Temperature	SI Base Unit: Kelvin (K)
Temperature	K = -273.15°C
Temperature	K = °C + 273.15
Temperature	°F = 1.8(°C) + 32
Temperature	°C = (°F - 32)/1.8

Conceptual Diagram: Unit Conversion Chain

From imperial to metric; use factors for accuracy.

Key Definitions & Terms

SI Unit

Standard international. Ex: kg mass. Relevance: Consistency. Detailed: Kelvin temp, Pascal pressure.

Conversion Factor

Ratio units. Ex: 1 inch=2.54 cm. Relevance: Change systems. Detailed: Mass, volume, energy, etc.

Thermochemical Calorie

Heat 1g water 14.5-15.5°C. Ex: 4.184 J. Relevance: Energy. Detailed: Note per particle units.

Pascal

Pressure unit. Ex: 1 Pa=1 N/m². Relevance: Force/area. Detailed: 1 atm=1.013×10^5 Pa.

Kelvin

Absolute temp. Ex: 0 K=-273.15°C. Relevance: Thermo. Detailed: Conversion formulas.

Electron Volt

Energy 1.602×10^-19 J. Relevance: Atomic. Detailed: 96.487 kJ/mol.

British Thermal Unit

1055.06 J. Relevance: Heat. Detailed: 252.2 cal.

Torr

1 mmHg. Relevance: Pressure. Detailed: Vacuum.

Bar

10^5 Pa. Relevance: Atmos. Detailed: Approx 1 atm.

Metric Tonne

1000 kg. Relevance: Large mass. Detailed: 2205 lb.

Atomic Mass Unit

1.6606×10^-24 g. Relevance: Atoms. Detailed: 1/12 C-12.

Litre-Atmosphere

101.32 J. Relevance: Gas work. Detailed: 24.217 cal.

Erg

Energy unit. Ex: 10^-7 J. Relevance: Small scale. Detailed: In conversions.

Angstrom

Length 10^-10 m. Ex: Atomic sizes. Relevance: Micro. Detailed: 0.1 nm.

Newton

Force kg m/s². Ex: Pressure def. Relevance: Mechanics. Detailed: 1 N=1 kg m/s².

60+ Questions & Answers - Based on Appendix II

10 1 mark, 10 4 marks, 10 6 marks. Answers point-wise in black text.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions (10 Qs - Short)

1. 1 kg in pounds?

1 Mark Answer:

2.205 lb.

2. 1 cal in J?

1 Mark Answer:

4.184 J.

3. 1 inch in cm?

1 Mark Answer:

2.54 cm.

4. 1 atm in Pa?

1 Mark Answer:

1.013×10^5 Pa.

5. 1 L in quarts?

1 Mark Answer:

1.056 quarts.

6. 1 eV in J?

1 Mark Answer:

1.6022×10^-19 J.

7. 1 bar in Pa?

1 Mark Answer:

10^5 Pa.

8. SI unit temperature?

1 Mark Answer:

Kelvin (K).

9. 1 Å in m?

1 Mark Answer:

10^-10 m.

10. 1 u in g?

1 Mark Answer:

1.6606×10^-24 g.

Part B: 4 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Medium, Exactly 5 Lines Each)

1. Explain temperature conversions.

4 Marks Answer:

K = °C + 273.15.
°F = 1.8°C + 32.
°C = (°F - 32)/1.8.
SI base Kelvin.
Ex: 0°C = 273.15 K = 32°F.

2. What is thermochemical calorie?

4 Marks Answer:

Heat to raise 1g water from 14.5 to 15.5°C.
4.184 J.
Used in thermo.
Note per particle multiply Avogadro.
Ex: Energy units.

Part C: 6 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Long, Exactly 8 Lines Each)

1. Discuss energy conversions.

6 Marks Answer:

1 J = 10^7 erg.
1 cal = 4.184 J.
1 eV = 1.6022×10^-19 J = 96.487 kJ/mol.
1 L-atm = 101.32 J.
1 BTU = 1055.06 J.
Cal def heat 1g water specific.
eV per mol for particle units.
Use in thermo, atomic energy.

Key Formulas & Tables

Key Formula: Use factors for conversion, e.g., mass_new = mass_old * factor.

Category	Conversion

Derivations & Calculations

Convert 1 lb to kg

Step 1: Factor 0.45359 kg/lb.
Step 2: 1 * 0.45359 = 0.45359 kg.

Solved Examples & Problems

Example: Convert 32°F to °C

(32 - 32)/1.8 = 0 °C.

Activities & Applications

Activity: Unit Conversion Practice

Step 1: Choose unit.
Step 2: Apply factor.
Step 3: Calculate.
Observation: Consistent.
Precaution: Correct direction.

Key Concepts

SI Units

Steps: Preferred. Ex: Kelvin. Pitfall: Mix units. Interlink: Lab.

Interactive Quiz (10 Q)

Interactive Quiz - Conversions

10 MCQs; test your knowledge.

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics

SI units preferred.
Mnemonic: King Henry Died By Drinking Chocolate Milk (kilo, hecto, deca, base, deci, centi, milli).

Key Terms & Formulas

Term	Description	Example	Usage
Calorie	Heat unit	4.184 J	Energy

Key Processes & Tables

Process: Temperature Conversion

Step 1: Choose formula.
Step 2: Plug values.
Step 3: Calculate.

Standard potentials at 298 K in electrochemical order

Overview & Key Concepts

Content: Reduction half-reactions with E°/V in decreasing order from +3.0 to -3.05.
Importance: Determine spontaneity of reactions, cell potentials.
Applications: Galvanic cells, electrolysis. Real-world: Batteries, corrosion.

Detailed Table

Reduction half-reaction	E°/V
H4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e– → XeO3 + 3H2O	+3.0
F2 + 2e– → 2F–	+2.87
O3 + 2H+ + 2e– → O2 + H2O	+2.07
S2O8^2– + 2e– → 2SO4^2–	+2.05
Ag2+ + e– → Ag+	+1.98
Co3+ + e– → Co2+	+1.81
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– → 2H2O	+1.78
Au+ + e– → Au	+1.69
Pb4+ + 2e– → Pb2+	+1.67
2HClO + 2H+ + 2e– → Cl2 + 2H2O	+1.63
Ce4+ + e– → Ce3+	+1.61
2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e– → Br2 + 2H2O	+1.60
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O	+1.51
Mn3+ + e– → Mn2+	+1.51
Au3+ + 3e– → Au	+1.40
Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl–	+1.36
Cr2O7^2– + 14H+ + 6e– → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O	+1.33
O3 + H2O + 2e– → O2 + 2OH–	+1.24
O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O	+1.23
ClO4– + 2H+ +2e– → ClO3– + H2O	+1.23
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e– → Mn2+ + 2H2O	+1.23
Pt2+ + 2e– → Pt	+1.20
Br2 + 2e– → 2Br–	+1.09
Pu4+ + e– → Pu3+	+0.97
NO3– + 4H+ + 3e– → NO + 2H2O	+0.96
2Hg2+ + 2e– → Hg2^2+	+0.92
ClO– + H2O + 2e– → Cl– + 2OH–	+0.89
Hg2+ + 2e– → Hg	+0.86
NO3– + 2H+ + e– → NO2 + H2O	+0.80
Ag+ + e– → Ag	+0.80
Hg2^2+ +2e– → 2Hg	+0.79
Fe3+ + e– → Fe2+	+0.77
BrO– + H2O + 2e– → Br– + 2OH–	+0.76
Hg2SO4 +2e– → 2Hg + SO4^2–	+0.62
MnO4^2– + 2H2O + 2e– → MnO2 + 4OH–	+0.60
MnO4– + e– → MnO4^2–	+0.56
I2 + 2e– → 2I–	+0.54
I3– + 2e– → 3I–	+0.53
Cu+ + e– → Cu	+0.52
NiOOH + H2O + e– → Ni(OH)2 + OH–	+0.49
Ag2CrO4 + 2e– → 2Ag + CrO4^2–	+0.45
O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–	+0.40
ClO4– + H2O + 2e– → ClO3– + 2OH–	+0.36
[Fe(CN)6]^3– + e– → [Fe(CN)6]^4–	+0.36
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu	+0.34
Hg2Cl2 + 2e– → 2Hg + 2Cl–	+0.27
AgCl + e– → Ag + Cl–	+0.27
Bi3+ + 3e– → Bi	+0.20
SO4^2– + 4H+ + 2e– → H2SO3 + H2O	+0.17
Cu2+ + e– → Cu+	+0.16
Sn4+ + 2e– → Sn2+	+0.15
AgBr + e– → Ag + Br–	+0.07
Ti4+ + e– → Ti3+	0.00
2H+ + 2e– → H2	0.0 by definition
Fe3+ + 3e– → Fe	–0.04
O2 + H2O + 2e– → HO2– + OH–	–0.08
Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb	–0.13
In+ + e– → In	–0.14
Sn2+ + 2e– → Sn	–0.14
AgI + e– → Ag + I–	–0.15
Ni2+ + 2e– → Ni	–0.23
V3+ + e– → V2+	–0.26
Co2+ + 2e– → Co	–0.28
In3+ + 3e– → In	–0.34
Tl+ + e– → Tl	–0.34
PbSO4 + 2e– → Pb + SO4^2–	–0.36
Ti3+ + e– → Ti2+	–0.37
Cd2+ + 2e– → Cd	–0.40
In2+ + e– → In+	–0.40
Cr3+ + e– → Cr2+	–0.41
Fe2+ + 2e– → Fe	–0.44
In3+ + 2e– → In+	–0.44
S + 2e– → S2–	–0.48
In3+ + e– → In2+	–0.49
U4+ + e– → U3+	–0.61
Cr3+ + 3e– → Cr	–0.74
Zn2+ + 2e– → Zn	–0.76
Cd(OH)2 + 2e– → Cd + 2OH–	–0.81
2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH–	–0.83
Cr2+ + 2e– → Cr	–0.91
Mn2+ + 2e– → Mn	–1.18
V2+ + 2e– → V	–1.19
Ti2+ + 2e– → Ti	–1.63
Al3+ + 3e– → Al	–1.66
U3+ + 3e– → U	–1.79
Sc3+ + 3e– → Sc	–2.09
Mg2+ + 2e– → Mg	–2.36
Ce3+ + 3e– → Ce	–2.48
La3+ + 3e– → La	–2.52
Na+ + e– → Na	–2.71
Ca2+ + 2e– → Ca	–2.87
Sr2+ + 2e– → Sr	–2.89
Ba2+ + 2e– → Ba	–2.91
Ra2+ + 2e– → Ra	–2.92
Cs+ + e– → Cs	–2.92
Rb+ + e– → Rb	–2.93
K+ +e– → K	–2.93
Li+ + e– → Li	–3.05

Conceptual Diagram: Electrochemical Series

Decreasing E° from strong oxidants to reductants.

Key Definitions & Terms

Standard Potential

E° reduction (V). Ex: F2 +2.87. Relevance: Redox strength. Detailed: At 298K, 1M, 1 atm.

Reduction Half-Reaction

Gain electrons. Ex: Cu2+ +2e- → Cu. Relevance: E° table. Detailed: Positive strong oxidant.

Electrochemical Order

Decreasing E°. Relevance: Table. Detailed: Oxidants top.

60+ Questions & Answers - Based on Appendix III

10 1 mark, 10 4 marks, 10 6 marks. Answers point-wise in black text.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions (10 Qs - Short)

1. E° for F2/2F-?

1 Mark Answer:

+2.87 V.

2. E° for Li+/Li?

1 Mark Answer:

-3.05 V.

3. Standard E° for H2 is?

1 Mark Answer:

0.0 V by definition.

4. Strongest oxidant?

1 Mark Answer:

F2.

5. E° for Zn2+/Zn?

1 Mark Answer:

-0.76 V.

6. E° for Cu2+/Cu?

1 Mark Answer:

+0.34 V.

7. Strongest reductant?

1 Mark Answer:

Li.

8. E° for Ag+/Ag?

1 Mark Answer:

+0.80 V.

9. E° for O2/OH-?

1 Mark Answer:

+0.40 V.

10. E° for MnO4-/Mn2+?

1 Mark Answer:

+1.51 V.

Part B: 4 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Medium, Exactly 5 Lines Each)

1. What is electrochemical series?

4 Marks Answer:

Order decreasing E°.
Top strong oxidants.
Bottom strong reductants.
Used to predict reactions.
Ex: F2 top, Li bottom.

Part C: 6 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Long, Exactly 8 Lines Each)

1. How to calculate cell potential.

6 Marks Answer:

Identify cathode (higher E°).
Anode lower E°.
E_cell = E_cath - E_anod.
Positive spontaneous.
Ex: Zn (-0.76) anode, Cu (+0.34) cathode.
E = 0.34 - (-0.76) = 1.10 V.
At 298K standard.
Use for battery design.

Key Formulas & Tables

Key Formula: E_cell = E°_reduction (cathode) - E°_reduction (anode)

Reduction half-reaction	E°/V

Derivations & Calculations

Derivation: Spontaneity

ΔG = -nFE.
Positive E spontaneous.
Ex: For Zn/Cu.

Solved Examples & Problems

Example: Zn/Cu cell E°

1.10 V.

Activities & Applications

Activity: Predict Reaction

Step 1: Choose half-reactions.
Step 2: Compare E°.
Step 3: Determine direction.
Observation: Spontaneity.
Precaution: Standard conditions.

Key Concepts

Standard Potential

Steps: Table lookup. Ex: Redox. Pitfall: Sign error. Interlink: Electrochemistry.

Interactive Quiz (10 Q)

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics

Decreasing E° order.
Mnemonic: FONCl BrIS CH (for common halogens and others).

Key Terms & Formulas

Term	Description	Example	Usage
E°	Standard potential	+2.87 V F2	Redox

Key Processes & Tables

Process: Cell E° Calc

Step 1: Cathode higher.
Step 2: Subtract.
Step 3: Positive check.

Logarithms

Overview & Key Concepts

Content: Logarithms for calculations, laws, base 10, characteristic, mantissa, tables, examples.
Importance: Easy multiplication, division, powers. Used in pH, kinetics.
Applications: Numerical problems in Chemistry. Real-world: Scientific calc.

Introduction

Sometimes, a numerical expression may involve multiplication, division or rational powers of large numbers. For such calculations, logarithms are very useful. They help us in making difficult calculations easy. In Chemistry, logarithm values are required in solving problems of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, etc. We shall first introduce this concept, and discuss the laws, which will have to be followed in working with logarithms, and then apply this technique to a number of problems to show how it makes difficult calculations simple.

Laws of Logarithms

First Law: log_a (mn) = log_a m + log_a n
Second Law: log_a (m/n) = log_a m - log_a n
Third Law: log_a (m^n) = n log_a m

Logarithms to Base 10

Because number 10 is the base of writing numbers, it is very convenient to use logarithms to the base 10. Some examples are: log10 10 = 1, log10 100 = 2, log10 0.01 = –2, etc.

Standard Form

n = m × 10^p, where 1 ≤ m < 10. log n = p + log m, p characteristic, log m mantissa.

Logarithms Table

N	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
10	0000	0043	0086	0128	0170	0212	0253	0294	0334	0374	4	8	12	17	21	25	29	33	37
11	0414	0453	0492	0531	0569	0607	0645	0682	0719	0755	4	7	11	15	18	22	26	29	33
50	6990	6998	7007	7016	7024	7033	7042	7050	7059	7067	1	2	3	3	4	5	6	7	8
51	7076	7084	7093	7101	7110	7118	7126	7135	7143	7152	1	2	3	3	4	5	6	7	8
52	7160	7168	7177	7185	7193	7202	7210	7218	7226	7235	1	2	2	3	4	5	6	7	7
99	9956	9961	9965	9969	9974	9978	9983	9987	9991	9996	0	1	1	2	2	3	3	3	4

Antilogarithms Table

N	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
.00	1000	1002	1005	1007	1009	1012	1014	1016	1019	1021	0	0	1	1	1	1	2	2	2
.01	1023	1026	1028	1030	1033	1035	1038	1040	1042	1045	0	0	1	1	1	1	2	2	2
.99	9772	9795	9817	9840	9863	9886	9908	9931	9954	9977	2	5	7	9	11	14	16	18	20

Conceptual Diagram: Log Laws

Multiply → Add logs; Division → Subtract.

Key Definitions & Terms

Logarithm

Exponent base. Ex: log10 100=2. Relevance: Simplify calculations. Detailed: Laws add/subtract/multiply.

Characteristic

Integer part log. Ex: log 25.2=1.401. Relevance: Standard form. Detailed: p in m×10^p.

Mantissa

Fractional part log. Ex: 0.401 above. Relevance: Table lookup. Detailed: Always 0 to 1.

Base 10 Log

Common log. Ex: log10 10=1. Relevance: Decimal convenient. Detailed: Powers 10 easy.

Standard Form

n=m×10^p, 1≤m<10. Ex: 25.2=2.52×10^1. Relevance: Log calculation. Detailed: Decimal shift.

Mean Difference

Table section logs. Ex: For fine adjustment. Relevance: Accuracy. Detailed: Columns 1-9.

Antilog

Inverse log. Relevance: From log to number. Detailed: Use table reverse.

Negative Log

Bar notation. Ex: log 0.005= -2.3010 = 3.6990 bar -3. Relevance: Small numbers.

60+ Questions & Answers - Based on Appendix IV

10 1 mark, 10 4 marks, 10 6 marks. Answers point-wise in black text.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions (10 Qs - Short)

1. log10 100?

1 Mark Answer:

2. log (mn)=?

1 Mark Answer:

log m + log n.

3. Mantissa range?

1 Mark Answer:

0 to 1.

4. log10 0.01?

1 Mark Answer:

-2.

5. Characteristic log 25.2?

1 Mark Answer:

6. log (m^n)=?

1 Mark Answer:

n log m.

7. log10 1?

1 Mark Answer:

8. Bar notation for?

1 Mark Answer:

Negative logs.

9. Antilog means?

1 Mark Answer:

Inverse log.

10. Standard form for 0.005?

1 Mark Answer:

5×10^-3.

Part B: 4 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Medium, Exactly 5 Lines Each)

1. Laws of logarithms.

4 Marks Answer:

log(mn) = log m + log n.
log(m/n) = log m - log n.
log(m^n) = n log m.
Simplify multiply/divide/power.
Ex: log(8/2) = log8 - log2 = 0.903 - 0.301 = 0.602.

Part C: 6 Marks Questions (10 Qs - Long, Exactly 8 Lines Each)

1. Explain characteristic and mantissa.

6 Marks Answer:

log n = p + log m, p integer characteristic.
log m mantissa 0 to 1.
Standard form n = m ×10^p, 1≤m<10.
Ex: log 0.005 = -3 + 0.699 = 0.699 bar -3.
p from exponent.
Mantissa from table.
Negative logs bar notation.
Use for small/large numbers.

Key Formulas & Tables

Key Formula: log (mn) = log m + log n, etc.

N	0	1	...

N	0	1	...

Derivations & Calculations

Proof First Law

Step 1: a^x = m, a^y = n.
Step 2: mn = a^{x+y}.
Step 3: log_a (mn) = x+y.

Solved Examples & Problems

Example 1: 6.3 × 1.29

log x = log6.3 + log1.29 = 0.7993 + 0.1106 = 0.9099, x = antilog 0.9099 = 8.127.

Example 2: (1.23)^3 / (11.2 × 23.5)

From page 8, x = 0.005183.

Example 3: (71.24)^5 × 56^7 / (2.3)^21

From page 9, x = 2967.

Illustration 1: log x = 1.0712

x = 11.79.

Illustration 2: log10 x = 2.1352

x = 1366.

Illustration: Find (1.23)^3 / 11.2 x 23.5

x = 0.005183.

Illustration: Find 11.2^3 / (1.23)^5

Let x = 11.2^3 / (1.23)^5, log x = 3 log11.2 - 5 log1.23 = 3.1476 - 0.4495 = 2.6981, x = 498.9.

Illustration: Find sqrt[3]{(7.124)^2 / 56}

log x = (2/3) log7.124 - (1/3) log56 = 0.6018 - 0.5827 = 0.0191, x = 1.045.

Activities & Applications

Activity: Calculate pH

Step 1: pH = -log[H+].
Step 2: Use table for log.
Step 3: Negative.
Observation: Acid/base.
Precaution: Small numbers.

Key Concepts

Log Laws

Steps: Apply to simplify. Ex: Multi add. Pitfall: Base mismatch. Interlink: pH.

Interactive Quiz (10 Q)

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics

Laws: Product add, quotient subtract, power multiply.
Mnemonic: Product Add, Quotient Subtract (PAQS).

Key Terms & Formulas

Term	Description	Example	Usage
Logarithm	Exponent	log10 100=2	Calc

Key Processes & Tables

Process: Find log using table

Step 1: Standard form.
Step 2: Characteristic.
Step 3: Mantissa row/col/diff.
Step 4: Add.

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