Complete Solutions and Summary of What Is Psychology? – NCERT Class 11, Psychology, Chapter 1 – Summary, Questions, Answers, Extra Questions
A comprehensive introduction to psychology as a scientific discipline, exploring its history, different fields and approaches, the relationship between mind, behaviour, and experience, the discipline’s significance in daily life and its interdisciplinary connections with other sciences and professions.
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What is Psychology
Chapter 1: Psychology - Ultimate Study Guide | NCERT Class 11 Notes, Questions, Examples & Quiz 2025
Full Chapter Summary & Detailed Notes - What is Psychology Class 11 NCERT
Overview & Key Concepts
- Chapter Goal: Understand nature and role of psychology in mind and behaviour, growth of the discipline, fields, relationship with other disciplines, professions, value in daily life. Exam Focus: Definition, as natural/social science, mental processes/experiences/behaviour, popular notions, evolution, development in India, branches, interdisciplines, everyday applications. 2025 Updates: Emphasis on neuroscience, AI interfaces, cognitive processes. Fun Fact: First psychology lab by Wundt in 1879 Leipzig. Core Idea: Psychology is science of mental processes, experiences, behaviour in contexts. Real-World: Understanding self/others, handling stress, improving relationships. Ties: To subsequent chapters on methods, bases of behaviour, human development. Expanded: Psychology evolved from philosophy; S-R associations, mind-brain link. Global estimates: Interfaces with biology, social sciences. Ethical aspect: Objective, bias-free explanations; self-reflection in Indian tradition.
- Wider Scope: Levels individual/group/organisational; biological/social bases; methods from sciences.
- Expanded Content: Psychology minimizes biases; scientific/objective or subjective. Indian self-reflection; western too. Young science but old knowledge; interfaces neuroscience/computer science. Brain imaging fMRI/EEG real-time. IT human-computer interaction/AI need cognitive knowledge. Parallel streams natural/social sciences. Converge/drift.
Introduction
You were, perhaps, asked by your teacher in the first class why you opted for psychology over other subjects. What do you hope to learn? If you were asked this question, what was your response? Generally, the range of responses which surface in class to this question are truly bewildering. Most students give inane responses, like they want to know what others are thinking. But then one also comes across such responses as knowing oneself, knowing others or more specific responses like knowing why people dream, why people go out of their way to help others or beat each other up. All ancient traditions have engaged themselves with questions about human nature. The Indian philosophical traditions, in particular, deal with questions relating to why people behave in the manner in which they do. Why are people generally unhappy? What changes should they bring about in themselves if they desire happiness in their lives? Like all knowledge, psychological knowledge too is intended to contribute to human well-being. If the world is full of misery, it is largely due to humans themselves. Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or war in Iraq happened. Why innocent people in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the North- East have to face bombs and bullets? Psychologists ask what is in the experiences of young men which turn them into terrorists seeking revenge. But there is another side to human nature. You may have heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia, paralysed waist down because of an injury he suffered in a war with Pakistan, who climbed the Mt. Everest. What moved him to climb such heights? These are not only questions about human nature which psychology addresses as a human science. You will be surprised to learn that modern psychology also deals with somewhat nebulous micro-level phenomenon like consciousness, focusing attention in the face of noise, or supporters trying to burn down a shopping complex after their team had scored victory in a football game over its traditional rival. Psychology cannot claim that answers have been found to these complex questions. But it surely has improved upon our understanding and how we make sense of these phenomena. The most striking aspect of the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies in the study of psychological processes which are largely internal and available to humans for observation within themselves. Expanded: The growth of the human mind is still high adventure, in many ways the highest adventure on earth. – Norman Cousins. Psychology as a discipline is hard to define because it evolves continuously and the range of phenomena it studies cannot be captured by one definition. This is even more true of psychology.
- Examples: Knowing others' thoughts; why unhappy; 9/11 terrorists; Ahluwalia climb.
- Point: Psychology contributes well-being; human misery due humans.
- Expanded: Ancient traditions human nature; Indian why behave/unhappy.
Extended: Knowledge for well-being; misery due humans; questions macro/micro. Striking internal processes available self-observation.
Psychology as Discipline
As we have discussed above, psychology studies behaviour, experience and mental processes. It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental processes result in different behaviours. When we observe others as lay or common persons, our own points of view or our ways of understanding the world influence our interpretations of their behaviours and experiences. Psychologists try to minimise such biases in their explanations of behaviour and experience in various ways. Some do so by seeking to make their analysis scientific and objective. Others seek to explain behaviour from the point of view of the experiencing persons because they think that subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience. In the Indian tradition, self- reflection and analysis of our conscious experiences, is held to be a major source of psychological understanding. Many western psychologists have also begun to emphasise the role of self-reflection and self-knowledge in understanding human behaviour and experience. Regardless of the differences in the way psychologists go about the study of behaviour, mental processes and experiences, they seek to understand and explain them in a systematic and verifiable manner. Psychology, though it is a very old knowledge discipline, is a young science, if one were to take the year of the founding of the first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in Leipzig. However, what kind of science is psychology, still remains a matter of debate, particularly because of the new interfaces of it that have emerged in recent times. Psychology is generally categorised as a social science. But it should not come to you as a surprise that, not only in other countries, but in India also, it is also a subject of study offered in the faculty of science, both at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels. Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or M.Sc. degree in universities. In fact, two of the most sought after emerging disciplines which continuously borrow from psychology are Neuroscience and Computer Science. Some of us would be aware of the fast developing brain imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc. which make it possible to study brain processes in real time, i.e. when they are actually taking place. Similarly, in IT areas, both human-computer interaction and artificial intelligence cannot possibly grow without psychological knowledge in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology as a discipline today has two parallel streams. One which makes use of the method in physical and biological sciences and the other which makes use of the method of social and cultural sciences in studying various psychological and social phenomena. These streams sometimes converge only to drift apart and go their separate ways. In the first case, psychology considers itself as a discipline, which focuses largely on biological principles to explain human behaviour. It assumes that all behavioural phenomena have causes which can be discovered if we can collect data systematically under controlled conditions. Here the aim of the researcher is to know the cause and effect relationship so that a prediction of the behavioural phenomenon can be made and behaviour can be controlled if need be. On the other hand, psychology as a social science focuses on how behavioural phenomena can be explained in terms of the interaction that takes place between the person and the socio-cultural context of which s/he is a part. Each behavioural phenomenon is assumed to have multiple causes. Expanded: Psychology influenced by Descartes and physics, follows hypothetico-deductive model. Theory proposes hypothesis tested empirical data. Revised if needed. Evolutionary approach also used. As social, studies behaviour socio-cultural contexts. Humans influenced by/create contexts.
- Examples: Bias in interpretations; self-reflection Indian; brain imaging fMRI.
- Point: Minimize biases; scientific/subjective; young science 1879.
- Expanded: Self-knowledge western too; interfaces neuroscience/IT.
Extended: Parallel streams natural/social; converge/drift; biological principles/multiple causes. Hypothetico-deductive; theory/hypothesis/data.
Understanding Mind and Behaviour
You now know that the two streams discussed above are in fact two different approaches to understanding psychological phenomena, namely the reductionist and the constructionist or holistic approach. The reductionist approach tries to explain behaviour in terms of simpler causes. For example, behavioural psychologists explained behaviour using stimulus and response, while cognitive psychologists use information processing as a framework. The constructionist or holistic approach emphasises the role of the context in understanding behaviour. It argues that behaviour can only be understood in the context of which it occurs. For example, a behaviour in a classroom may be different from the same behaviour in a playground. Both approaches are useful in providing different perspectives on the same phenomenon. However, psychologists tend to lean towards one or the other approach. We might say that they have a preference for a particular 'level of explanation'. Psychology as a modern discipline has a short history but a long past. It emerged as an independent discipline in the late 19th century. The first laboratory was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt focused on consciousness and used introspection as a method. Later, William James in America developed functionalism, focusing on adaptation. Freud in Austria developed psychoanalysis for unconscious. Behaviourism by Watson and Skinner focused on observable behaviour. Gestalt psychology emphasised whole. Humanistic by Rogers and Maslow focused on self. Cognitive revolution in 1960s brought information processing. Contemporary includes neuroscience, evolutionary. Expanded: Psychology was once defined as science of mind. Mind taboo because not concrete/location. Now returned thanks Sperry/Penrose. Unified theory possible. Mind separate entity; cases documented brain damage but mind intact. E.g., occipital removed but respond visual; phantom arm; duplicates parents. Mind body relationship; affective neuroscience positive visualisation changes bodily. Ornish blocked arteries visualise flow; relief. Mental imagery cure phobias. Psychoneuroimmunology mind strengthens immune.
- Examples: S-R; information processing; classroom vs playground.
- Point: Reductionist/holistic; context important.
- Expanded: Different perspectives; preference level explanation.
Extended: Approaches useful; lean one. Mind brain separate; cases brain injury mind intact. Psychoneuroimmunology.
Popular Notions about the Discipline of Psychology
We often hear people making statements about others such as 'He is mad', or 'She is depressed'. Such statements are based on popular notions or common sense understanding of psychological phenomena. Popular notions about psychology are often inaccurate or based on misconceptions. For example, many people think that psychology is only about mental disorders or that psychologists can read minds. These notions are far from the truth. Psychology is a scientific discipline that uses systematic methods to study psychological phenomena. It is not common sense or intuition. Common sense is often contradictory and based on hindsight. Psychology relies on empirical evidence and systematic observation. Everyday, almost everyone acts like a psychologist. We try to understand why someone behaved in a certain way and come up with explanations. We have our own theory of human behaviour. E.g., workers lazy need push. Popular theories common sense may not true investigated. Common sensical explanations hindsight explain little. E.g., attraction friend distant: Out sight out mind or distance fonder. Depends what happens; explanation follows. Psychology looks patterns predicted not explained after. Scientific knowledge runs against common sense. E.g., Dweck 1975 children give up easy difficult. Common give easy success confidence. Study: Group easy always; group mix. After, new problems: Always succeed gave up faster than mix taught effort. Other: Men intelligent women? Untrue empirical. Perform large audience not best? Practised perform better presence. Expanded: Common sense contradictory. Psychology debunks myths.
- Examples: Mad/depressed; read minds.
- Point: Popular inaccurate; psychology scientific.
- Expanded: Common sense contradictory/hindsight; empirical evidence.
Extended: Not intuition; systematic observation. Dweck study effort vs success. Other myths untrue.
Evolution of Psychology
Psychology as a modern discipline has a short history but a long past. It emerged as an independent discipline in the late 19th century. The first laboratory was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt focused on consciousness and used introspection as a method. Later, William James in America developed functionalism, focusing on adaptation. Freud in Austria developed psychoanalysis for unconscious. Behaviourism by Watson and Skinner focused on observable behaviour. Gestalt psychology emphasised whole. Humanistic by Rogers and Maslow focused on self. Cognitive revolution in 1960s brought information processing. Contemporary includes neuroscience, evolutionary. Psychology as a modern discipline, which is influenced to a large extent by Western developments, has a short history. It grew out of ancient philosophy concerned with questions of psychological significance. We mentioned earlier that the formal beginning of modern psychology is traced back to 1879 when the first experimental laboratory was established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt was interested in the study of conscious experience and wanted to analyse the constituents or the building blocks of the mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time analysed the structure of the mind through introspection and therefore were called structuralists. Introspection was a procedure in which individuals or subjects in psychological experiments were asked to describe in detail, their own mental processes or experiences. However, introspection as a method did not satisfy many other psychologists. It was considered less scientific because the introspective reports could not be verified by outside observers. This led to the development of new perspectives in psychology. An American psychologist, William James, who had set up a psychological laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after the setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developed what was called a functionalist approach to the study of the human mind. William James believed that instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, psychology should instead study what the mind does and how behaviour functions in making people deal with their environment. For example, functionalists focused on how behaviour enabled people to satisfy their needs. According to William James, consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental process interacting with the environment formed the core of psychology. A very influential educational thinker of the time, John Dewey, used functionalism to argue that human beings seek to function effectively by adapting to their environment. In the early 20th century, a new perspective called Gestalt psychology emerged in Germany as a reaction to the structuralism of Wundt. It focused on the organisation of perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at the components of the mind, the Gestalt psychologists argued that when we look at the world our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the components of the perception. In other words, what we experience is more than the inputs received from our environment. When, for example, light from a series of flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we actually experience movement of light. When we see a movie, we actually have a series of rapidly moving images of still pictures falling on our retina. Thus, our perceptual experience is more than the elements. Experience is holistic; it is a Gestalt. We will learn more about the Gestalt psychology when we discuss about the nature of perception in Chapter 5. Yet another reaction to structuralism came in the form of behaviourism. Around 1910, John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as subject matters of psychology. He was greatly influenced by the work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on classical conditioning. For Watson, mind is not observable and introspection is subjective because it cannot be verified by another observer. According to him, scientific psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable. He defined psychology as a study of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which can be measured and studied objectively. Behaviourism of Watson was further developed by many influential psychologists who are known as behaviourists. Most prominent among them was Skinner who applied behaviourism to a wide range of situations and popularised the approach. We will discuss Skinner’s work later in this textbook. Although behaviourists dominated the field of psychology for several decades after Watson, a number of other approaches and views about psychology and its subject matter were developing around the same time. One person who shook the world with his radical view of human nature was Sigmund Freud. Freud viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders. While Freudian psychoanalysis viewed human beings as motivated by unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the humanistic perspective in psychology took a more positive view of human nature. Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasised the free will of human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential. They argued that behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour as determined by environmental conditions undermines human freedom and dignity and takes a mechanistic view of human nature. These different approaches filled the history of modern psychology and provided multiple perspectives to its development. Each of these perspectives has its own focus and draws our attention to the complexity of psychological processes. There are strengths as well as weaknesses in each approach. Some of these approaches have led to further developments in the discipline. Aspects of Gestalt approach and structuralism were combined and led to the development of the cognitive perspective which focuses on how we know about the world. Cognition is the process of knowing. It involves thinking, understanding, perceiving, memorising, problem solving and a host of other mental processes by which our knowledge of the world develops, making us able to deal with the environment in specific ways. Some cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like the computer. Mind, according to this view is like a computer and it receives, processes, transforms, stores and retrieves information. Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through their exploration into the physical and the social world. This view is sometimes called constructivism. Piaget’s view of child development which will be discussed later is considered a constructivist theory of development of the mind. Another Russian psychologist Vygotsky went even further to suggest that the human mind develops through social and cultural processes in which the mind is viewed as culturally constructed through joint interaction between adults and children. In other words, while for Piaget children actively construct their own minds, Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint cultural construction and emerges as a result of interaction between children and adults. Expanded: Box 1.1 Some Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution of Modern Psychology. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. 1890 William James publishes Principles of Psychology. 1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system of psychology. 1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis. 1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his work on digestive system that led to understanding of principles of development of responses. 1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and Simon. 1912 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany. 1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta University is established. 1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science Congress Association. 1924 Indian Psychological Association is founded. 1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’, a book that led to the foundation of behaviourism. 1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee publish the first textbook on Social Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin). 1949 Psychological Research Wing of the Defence Science Organisation of India is established. 1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers publishes Client-Centred Therapy. 1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and Human Behaviour’, strengthening behaviourism as a major approach to psychology. 1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’. 1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at Allahabad. 1955 National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at Bangalore. 1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is established. 1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win the Nobel Prize for their work on built-in species- specific animal behaviour patterns that emerge without any prior experience/ learning. 1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for work on decision-making. 1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the Nobel Prize for their research on vision cells in the brain. 1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for split- brain research. 1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) India was founded. 1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is established at Gurgaon, Haryana. 2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for research on human judgment and decision- making under uncertainty. 2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for his work in applying Game Theory to understanding of conflict and cooperation in economic behaviour.
- Examples: Wundt lab; Freud unconscious; Watson behaviourism.
- Point: Short history long past; evolved schools.
- Expanded: Introspection; functionalism; psychoanalysis; behaviourism; gestalt; humanistic; cognitive.
Extended: Contemporary neuroscience/evolutionary; Box 1.1 landmarks. Developments indigenisation; traditional texts.
Development in India
In India, psychology began in early 20th century with Calcutta University offering the first course in 1915. N.N. Sengupta and G. Bose were early pioneers. Bose worked on psychoanalysis with Indian context. After independence, psychology grew with focus on social issues, education, mental health. Institutes like NIMHANS, NCERT. Contemporary Indian psychology integrates traditional concepts like yoga, meditation with western methods. Areas like organisational, health, community psychology growing. The modern era of Indian psychology began in the Department of Philosophy at Calcutta University where the first syllabus of experimental psychology was introduced and the first psychology laboratory was established in 1915. Calcutta University started the first Department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another Department of Applied Psychology in 1938. The beginning of modern experimental psychology at Calcutta University was greatly influenced by the Indian psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was trained in USA in the experimental tradition of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained in Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which influenced the early development of psychology in India. Professor Bose established Indian Psychoanalytical Association in 1922. Departments of Psychology in the Universities of Mysore and Patna were other early centres of teaching and research in psychology. From these modest beginnings, modern psychology has grown as a strong discipline in India with a large number of centres of teaching, research and applications. There are two centers of excellence in psychology supported by the UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar and at the University of Allahabad. About 70 universities offer courses in psychology. Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology in a Third World Country: The Indian Experience published in 1986 traces the history of modern psychology as a social science in India in four phases. According to him, the first phase till independence was a phase with emphasis on experimental, psychoanalytic and psychological testing research, which primarily reflected the development of the discipline in western countries. The second phase till the 1960s was a phase of expansion of psychology in India into different branches of psychology. During this phase Indian psychologists showed a desire to have an Indian identity by seeking to link western psychology to the Indian context. They did this by using western ideas to understand the Indian situation. However, psychology in India sought to become relevant for Indian society in the post 1960s phase of problem-oriented research. Psychologists became more focused on addressing the problems of the Indian society. Further, the limitations of excessive dependence on western psychology for our social context were also realised. Leading psychologists emphasised the significance of research, which is of relevance to our situation. The search for a new identity of psychology in India led to the phase of indigenisation, which started during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting the western framework, Indian psychologists stressed the need for developing an understanding based on a framework, which was culturally and socially relevant. This trend was also reflected in some attempts to develop psychological approaches based on traditional Indian psychology, which came from our ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this phase is characterised by development in indigenous psychology, which originated from the Indian cultural context and was relevant for society and Indian psychology based on the Indian traditional knowledge system. While these developments continue, psychology in India is making significant contributions to the field of psychology in the world. It has become more contextual emphasising the need for developing psychological principles, which are rooted in our own social and cultural context. Alongside, we also find that new research studies involving interfaces with neuro- biological and health sciences are being carried out. Psychology in India is now being applied in diverse professional areas. Not only have psychologists been working with children having special problems, they are employed in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in corporate organisations in the HRD and advertising departments, in sports directorates, in the development sector and in IT industry. Expanded: Indian philosophical tradition rich mental processes consciousness self mind-body. Philosophical roots not influenced modern India. Development dominated western; attempts link Indian. Truth value assertions ancient through scientific. Modest beginnings grown strong large centres. Two excellence UGC Utkal/Allahabad. 70 universities courses. Sinha book four phases: Pre-independence western replication; 1960s expansion; post-1960s problem-oriented; late 1970s indigenisation traditional. Now contextual rooted culture; interfaces neuro-health. Applied diverse professional.
- Examples: Calcutta 1915; Bose psychoanalysis; NIMHANS.
- Point: Early 20th; post-independence growth.
- Expanded: Traditional integration yoga; social/education/mental health.
Extended: Community/organisational; contemporary. Phases Sinha; indigenisation.
Branches of Psychology
Psychology has several branches or subfields. Cognitive psychology studies mental processes like attention, memory, thinking. Developmental studies changes over lifespan. Social studies behaviour in groups. Clinical deals with mental disorders. Educational applies to teaching/learning. Industrial/organisational to workplace. Health to well-being. Environmental to human-environment interaction. Other: sports, military, forensic, neuropsychology. Various fields of specialisation in psychology have emerged over the years. Some of these are discussed in this section. Cognitive Psychology investigates mental processes involved in acquisition, storage, manipulation, and transformation of information received from the environment along with its use and communication. The major cognitive processes are attention, perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision-making and language. You will be studying these topics later in this textbook. In order to study these cognitive processes, psychologists conduct experiments in laboratory settings. Some of them also follow an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which focuses on the environmental factors, to study cognitive processes in a natural setting. Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with neuroscientists and computer scientists. Biological Psychology focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the physical system, including the brain and the rest of the nervous system, the immune system, and genetics. Biological psychologists often collaborate with neuroscientists, zoologists, and anthropologists. Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of research where psychologists and neuroscientists are working together. Researchers are studying the role of neurotransmitters or chemical substances which are responsible for neural communication in different areas of the brain and therefore in associated mental functions. They do their research on people with normal functioning brain as well as on people with damaged brain by following advanced technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc. about which you will study later. Developmental Psychology studies the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span, from conception to old age. The primary concern of developmental psychologists is how we become what we are. For many years the major emphasis was on child and adolescent development. However today an increasing number of developmental psychologists show strong interest in adult development and ageing. They focus on the biological, socio-cultural and environmental factors that influence psychological characteristics such as intelligence, cognition, emotion, temperament, morality, and social relationship. Developmental psychologists collaborate with anthropologists, educationists, neurologists, social workers, counsellors and almost every branch of knowledge where there is a concern for growth and development of a human being. Social Psychology explores how people are affected by their social environments, how people think about and influence others. Social psychologists are interested in such topics as attitudes, conformity and obedience to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social motivation, inter-group relations and so on. Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology examines the role of culture in understanding behaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumes that human behaviour is not only a reflection of human-biological potential but also a product of culture. Therefore behaviour should be studied in its socio-cultural context. As you will be studying in different chapters of this book, culture influences human behaviour in many ways and in varying degrees. Environmental Psychology studies the interaction of physical factors such as temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural disasters on human behaviour. The influence of physical arrangement of the workplace on health, the emotional state, and interpersonal relations are also investigated. Current topics of research in this field are the extent to which, disposal of waste, population explosion, conservation of energy, efficient use of community resources are associated with and are functions of human behaviour. Health Psychology focuses on the role of psychological factors (for example, stress, anxiety) in the development, prevention and treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a health psychologist are stress and coping, the relationship between psychological factors and health, patient-doctor relationship and ways of promoting health enhancing factors. Clinical and Counselling Psychology deals with causes, treatment and prevention of different types of psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, eating disorders and chronic substance abuse. A related area is counselling, which aims to improve everyday functioning by helping people solve problems in daily living and cope more effectively with challenging situations. The work of clinical psychologists does not differ from that of counselling psychologists although a counselling psychologist sometimes deals with people who have less serious problems. In many instances, counselling psychologists work with students, advising them about personal problems and career planning. Like clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also study the causes, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders. How are clinical psychologists and psychiatrists different? A clinical psychologist has a degree in psychology, which includes intensive training in treating people with psychological disorders. In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree with years of specialised training in the treatment of psychological disorders. One important distinction is that psychiatrists can prescribe medications and give electroshock treatments whereas clinical psychologist cannot. Industrial/Organisational Psychology deals with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the workers and the organisations that employ them. Industrial/organisational psychologists are concerned with training employees, improving work conditions, and developing criteria for selecting employees. For example, an organisational psychologist might recommend that a company may adopt a new management structure that would increase communication between managers and staff. The background of industrial and organisational psychologists often includes training in cognitive and social psychology. Educational Psychology studies how people of all ages learn. Educational psychologists primarily help develop instructional methods and materials used to train people in both educational and work settings. They are also concerned with research on issues of relevance for education, counselling and learning problems. A related field, school psychology, focuses on designing programmes that promote intellectual, social, and emotional development of children, including those with special needs. They try to apply knowledge of psychology in a school setting. Sports Psychology applies psychological principles to improve sports performance by enhancing their motivation. Sports psychology is a relatively new field but is gaining acceptance worldwide. Other Emerging Branches of Psychology : The interdisciplinary focus on research and application of psychology has led to the emergence of varied areas like aviation psychology, space psychology, military psychology, forensic psychology, rural psychology, engineering psychology, managerial psychology, community psychology, psychology of women, and political psychology, to name a few. Expanded: Activity 1.3 rank interest branches.
- Examples: Cognitive memory; clinical disorders; social groups.
- Point: Subfields various aspects.
- Expanded: Developmental lifespan; educational learning; organisational workplace.
Extended: Health well-being; environmental interaction; others sports/forensic. Activity rank.
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Psychology relates to many disciplines. Philosophy: Roots in mind/soul. Biology: Brain/behaviour. Sociology: Social behaviour. Economics: Decision making. Political science: Voting/behaviour. Medicine: Mental health. Computer science: AI/cognition. Education: Learning. Law: Forensic. Anthropology: Cultural behaviour. Interfaces enrich. Any discipline, which deals with people, would definitely recognise the relevance of the knowledge of psychology. Similarly psychologists also acknowledge the relevance of other disciplines in understanding human behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence of interdisciplinary approach in the field of psychology. Researchers and scholars in science, social science and humanities have felt the significance of psychology as a discipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the relationship of psychology with other disciplines. In studying brain and behaviour, psychology shares its knowledge with neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and computer science. In studying human behaviour (its meaning, growth and development) in a socio-cultural context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology, sociology, social work, political science and economics. In studying mental activities involved in creation of literary texts, music and drama, psychology shares its knowledge with literature, art and music. Some of the major disciplines linked to the field of psychology are discussed below: Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century, certain concerns that are now part of contemporary psychology like, what is the nature of the mind or how do humans come to know their motivations and emotions were the concerns of philosophers. In the later part of the 19th century, Wundt and other psychologists adopted an experimental approach to these questions and contemporary psychology emerged. Despite the emergence of psychology as a science, it greatly draws from philosophy, particularly with respect to methods of knowing, and various domains of human nature. Medicine : Doctors have realised that the maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, is actually true. A large number of hospitals now employ psychologists. The role of psychologists in preventing people from engaging in health hazardous behaviours and in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen are some of the important areas where the two disciplines have come together. While treating patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, and the physically challenged, or handling patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and patients during post operative care doctors have also felt the need for psychological counselling. A successful doctor looks at the psychological as well as physical well-being of the patients. Economics, Political Science and Sociology : As sister social science disciplines, these three have drawn considerably from psychology and have enriched it as well. Psychology has contributed a great deal to the study of micro-level economic behaviour, particularly in understanding consumer behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision- making. American economists have used data on consumer sentiments to predict economic growth. Three scholars who have worked on such problems have received the Nobel Prize in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman and T. Schelling. Like economics, political science too draws considerably from psychology, particularly, in understanding issues related to exercise of power and authority, nature of political conflicts and their resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology and psychology come together to explain and understand the behaviour of individuals within different socio-cultural contexts. Issues related to socialisation, group and collective behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain from both these disciplines. Computer Science : From the very beginning, the effort of computer science has been in mimicking the human mind. One can see it in terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its memory organised, sequential and simultaneous (read parallel) processing of information. Computer scientists and engineers are seeking to make computers not only more and more intelligent but also machines which can ‘sense’ and ‘feel’. Developments in both these disciplines have brought about significant advancement in the field of cognitive sciences. Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer and a criminologist requires knowledge of psychology in answering such questions as: How well a witness remembers an accident, a street fight, or a murder? How well can s/he report such facts when taking the witness stand in the court? What factors influence the decision which is taken by the jury? What are the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood? What factors are held important in holding a culprit responsible for her/his action? What degree of punishment is considered just for a criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer these questions. Currently, a number of psychologists are involved in research on such issues, the answers to which would help the legal system of the country in the future. Mass Communication : The print and the electronic media have entered in our lives in a very big way. They have a major influence on our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. If they have brought us closer together, they have also reduced cultural diversities. The impact of media on the formation of attitudes of children and their behaviour is a domain where both these disciplines come together. Psychology also helps in developing strategies for better and effective communication. A journalist in reporting news must know the reader’s interests in the story. Since most stories deal with human events, knowledge of their motives and emotions is very important. A story will have more impact if it is based on a background of psychological knowledge and insight. Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychology have converged in many areas. Scientists have made use of music in raising work performance. Music and emotions is another area in which a number of studies have been carried out. Musicians in India have recently started experimenting with what they call ‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. The efficacy of music therapy still remains to be proven. Architecture and Engineering : At first glance the relationship between psychology and architecture and engineering would appear improbable. But such is actually not the case. Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his clients by providing mental and physical space through her design and satisfy aesthetically. Engineers must also take into account human habits in their plans for safety, for example, on streets and highways. Psychological knowledge helps in a big way in designing of all mechanical devices and displays. To sum up, psychology is located at the intersection of many fields of knowledge pertaining to human functioning. Expanded: Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines.
- Examples: Philosophy roots; biology brain; sociology social.
- Point: Interdisciplines relationships.
- Expanded: Economics decision; political voting; medicine health.
Extended: Computer AI; education learning; law forensic. Music therapy; architecture space.
Psychology in Everyday Life
Psychology applies daily. Understanding self/others; managing emotions; improving relationships; handling stress; better learning/studying; career choice; health promotion; conflict resolution; positive thinking. Examples: Exam anxiety; friendship issues; motivation. Makes life better. The discussion above may have clarified that psychology is not only a subject that satisfies some of the curiosities of our mind about human nature, but it is also a subject that can offer solutions to a variety of problems. These may range from purely personal (for example, a daughter having to face an alcoholic father or a mother dealing with a problem child) to those that may be rooted within the family set up (for example, lack of communication and interaction among family members) or in a larger group or community setting (for example, terrorist groups or socially isolated communities) or may have national or international dimensions. Problems related to education, health, environment, social justice, women development, intergroup relations, etc. are pervasive. While the solution of these problems may involve political, economic and social reforms, interventions at the individual levels are also needed in order to change. Many of these problems are largely of psychological nature and they result from our unhealthy thinking, negative attitude towards people and self and undesirable patterns of behaviour. A psychological analysis of these problems helps both in having a deeper understanding of these problems and also in finding their effective solutions. The potential of psychology in solving the problems of life is being realised more and more. Media has played a vital role in this respect. You may have seen on television counsellors and therapists suggesting solutions to a variety of problems related to children, adolescents, adults and the elderly people. You may also find them analysing vital social problems relating to social change and development, population, poverty, interpersonal or intergroup violence, and environmental degradation. Many psychologists now play an active role in designing and executing intervention programmes in order to provide people with a better quality of life. Hence, it is no surprise that we find psychologists working in diverse settings such as schools, hospitals, industries, prisons, business organisations, military establishments, and in private practice as consultants helping people solve problems in their respective settings. Besides helping you in rendering social service to others, the knowledge of psychology is also personally relevant to you in your day- to-day life. The principles and methods of psychology that you will learn in this course should be made use of in analysing and understanding yourself in relation to others. It is not that we do not think about ourselves. But very often, some of us think very highly of ourselves and any feedback that contradicts our opinion about ourselves is rejected because we engage in what is called a defensive behaviour. In some other cases, persons come to acquire a habit of running down themselves. Both conditions do not permit us to grow. We need to have a positive and balanced understanding of ourselves. You may use psychological principles in a positive manner to develop good habits of study for improving your learning and memory, and for solving your personal and interpersonal problems by using appropriate decision- making strategies. You will also find it of use to reduce or alleviate the stress of examination. Thus, the knowledge of psychology is quite useful in our everyday life, and is rewarding from personal as well as social points of view. Expanded: Psychology not only theoretical but solves problems personal/family/community/national/international. E.g., alcoholic father; lack communication family; terrorist groups; education/health/environment/social justice/women/intergroup. Psychological nature unhealthy thinking/negative attitude/undesirable behaviour. Analysis deeper understanding effective solutions. Potential realised; media role TV counsellors/therapists. Analyse social change/population/poverty/violence/degradation. Active intervention programmes better life. Diverse settings schools/hospitals/industries/prisons/business/military/private consultants. Personal relevant analyse self/others. Avoid defensive/high self or run down. Positive balanced. Develop study habits improve learning/memory; decision-making; reduce exam stress. Useful everyday rewarding personal/social.
- Examples: Stress management; better learning; relationships.
- Point: Daily applications self/others.
- Expanded: Emotions; career; health; conflict.
Extended: Positive thinking; motivation; life better. Problems solve intervention individual.
Summary
- Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of mental processes, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different contexts. It is treated as a natural as well as a social science.
- The major schools of psychological thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology.
- Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it is characterised by many approaches or diverse views, which explain behaviour at different levels. These approaches are not mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable insights into the complexities of human functioning. The cognitive approach uses thought processes as central to psychological functions. The humanistic approach views human functioning as characterised by a desire to grow, be productive and fulfill human potential.
- Today psychologists work in many specialised fields which have their own theories and methods. They make efforts to develop theories and solve problems in specific domains. Some of the major fields of psychology are: cognitive psychology, biological psychology, health psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational and school psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/organisational psychology, sports psychology.
- More recently a need is felt to have multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a better understanding of reality. This has led to a collaboration across disciplines. Interests of psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology), biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and music and fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful research and application.
- Psychology is a discipline not merely contributing to the development of theoretical knowledge about human behaviour, but contributing to the solution of problems at different levels. Psychologists are employed to help in diverse activities in a variety of settings including schools, hospitals, industries, training institutes, military and government establishments. Many of them are doing private practice and are consultants.
Why This Guide Stands Out
Complete: All subtopics, examples, Q&A, quiz. Psychology-focused. Free 2025.
Key Themes & Tips
- Aspects: Mental processes, experiences, behaviour, scientific, daily application.
- Thinkers: Wundt, James, Freud, Watson, Skinner, Rogers, Maslow.
- Tip: Distinguish popular/scientific; schools evolution; branches classify; daily examples.
Exam Case Studies
Overt/covert behaviour, introspection, behaviourism vs cognitive.
Project & Group Ideas
- This chapter tells you about several professionals in the field of psychology. Contact a psychologist who fits into one of the categories and interview the person. Have a list of questions prepared beforehand. Possible questions could be: (i) What kind of education is necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which college/university would you recommend for the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many jobs available today in your area of work? (iv) What would a typical day at work be like for you – or is there no such thing as “typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this line of work? Write a report of your interview and include your specific reactions.
- Go to the library or some bookstore or surf the internet and obtain names of some books (fiction/non-fiction or films), which have reference to applications of psychology. Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.
Group Discussions
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